PSU Ethics - Theories

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ETHICAL THEORIES

Although there are many ethical theories, they can be grouped according to the structure of human activity. See Chapter 3 in the Engineering Ethics text by Mitcham and Duvall. A person, the agent, performs an action, which leads to certain results, or consequences. Virtue theory focuses on the agent and issues of character and integrity. Deontological theory attempts to evaluate actions as right or wrong, and consequentialist theory focuses on the external results of an action.

Consequentialist Theory

This theory is commonly applied in engineering in the form of cost-benefit analysis. In common language, we say the ends justify the means. Here are some of the variations on this common theme of focusing on the consequences of decisions.

Utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham, 1748-1832; John Stuart Mill, 1806-1873)

Look at a situation in terms of how it will affect everyone that may be involved.
Those actions are right that produce the greatest total amount of human well-being.
Well-being is measured in terms of "utility" which is defined as the net pleasure, preference satisfaction, or happiness summed over all affected beings.

Altruism

Actions should benefit others, e.g., society.

Egoism

Actions should benefit or provide the greatest good for oneself.

What are the limitations or problems with consequentalist theory?

Difficult to predict consequences of actions
Can reduce ethics to economics
People have different ideas of what makes them happy.
Ends do not always (or ever?) justify the means if the means are morally unacceptable.
As with most classical ethics, there is no attention to life other than human.

Deontological Theory

This theory focuses on the action and the intention behind it, and claims that some actions are inherently wrong, and cannot be justified, for example by predicted good consequences that will result from them. It can also be called duty ethics: some actions are right because there is a duty to follow them. In addition, seeing morality as fundamentally respect for people's moral rights (defined in reference to the basic respect we owe them as persons) falls under this rubric.

Categorical Imperative (Immanuel Kant, 1724-1804)

Always act in such a way that the maxim of your action can be willed as a universal law of humanity.
Always treat humanity, whether yourself or other people, as an end and never as a means.
Act as if you are a legislator for all humanity, considered as ends in themselves.

These are all three expressions of the same idea, that morality means acting from rules one can universalize to all people considered as valuable in themselves and worthy of moral respect.

Golden Rule

Do unto others, as you would have them do unto you.
If you cannot will that everyone follow the same rule, your rule is not a moral one. This is a subtle variation of Kant's Categorical Imperative.

What are the limitations or problems with deontological theory?

Difficult to form intentions into a rule and then test it for universality.
Difficult to fully know intentions.
Feelings and emotions may have a role to play.
Sometimes consequences do matter (and perhaps override our initial duties).
As with most classical ethics, there is no attention to life other than human.

Virtue Theory (Aristotle, 384-322 B.C.)

Here we focus on the person, the actor or agent over the whole of his or her life. Moral behavior depends on the development of good habits or virtues. It is argued that in the scope of human activity, we usually understand virtuous behavior better than what particular actions are right or what consequences are good. Here are some further thoughts on virtue theory:

Promotes human flourishing
Virtues are those strengths of character that enable us to flourish
The virtuous person has practical wisdom, the ability to know when and how best to apply these various moral perspectives. Rather than consulting a formula or algorithm to determine the single right action, the virtuous person uses her judgment and acts on her best character traits.

What are the limitations or problems with virtue theory?

Virtues are defined too loosely to guide decisions in difficult cases.
Since virtues are defined in terms of social setting, morality becomes unduly relativistic.
As with most classical ethics, there is no attention to life other than human.

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